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POSITIVISM
Positivism emerging due to failure of speculative philosophy to explain the philosophic problem. August Comte (1798 -1857) FATHER positivistic philosophy  introduced the Word sociology means science of humanity in the background of science of biology.

There are two groups
1. Early group
2. Late neo positivism - 19th century

Comte considered  human being tries to understand through 3 stages
1. Theological: knowledge is acquired from the belief of religion
2. Metaphysical: Here we study by seeking certain causes and principles
3. Positive/scientific method: we try to study things by reasoning, by reference to observation

According to Comte this positive method should be applied in all the study (scientific)

 
Neo Positivism (logistic positivism)
Developed by vienna group  philosophers.Main principle is verifiability, criterion of statements provable in  mathematics and logic, are meaningless. These group of philosophers tried to eliminate the unverifiable facts. In this group, 2 important persons

1. Rudoff Camftp: he reduced the philosophy to logical analysis of language of science or he approved (he Idea of linguistic philosophy which Involve

a. Scrutiny of words: logic of science were regarded as syntax of language of science
b. Analytic meaning of the word: (semantic study) sense aspect of the language of sciences becomes the subject matter of study

2.Ludwig Wittgenstein _ problems of philosophy originated because philosopher ran to name the words  Instead of naming words (they thought that every word is a name), if we use it as a sentence, then most of the problem in philosophy can be solved.

 Analytical philosophy:
It considered that analysis must replace the vauge, expression of problem in the language by a formula that would demonstrate the real essence. His branch is placed on the*analysis  of the terms in which (hey are used. The great philosophers include- Bertrand Russel. There are three areas of importance in language  Words should be used precisely in talks and writings a.- language is far away from sense .
Systematic analysis of ordinary language.

4. Realism:
It Is the tendency to Treat the world as it Is. 11 Is due to the result of the over emphasis given by idealism. They considered that world itself appear as real.

5. Phenomenology;
The object of phenomenology Is to describe the phenomena as an object of experience accurately and independently of an assumptions to derive science. Developed by Edmund Hurseri. According to him, psychology cannot be accepted. Since it is studied under different traits

6. Pragmatism:
We can study things only through experience- Knowledge is subordinate to action) meaning and truth of ideas are determined in relation to practice. Anything that can be put in practice alone can be true.

PART TO WHOLE RELATIONSHIP
George WilheIrn Friedrich Hegel (1770 -1831) - German Philosopher

If one wants to study anything that should be from the historical perspective. This historical study has three perspectives.
1. Follows a course of necessity
2. History implies not only a change but also a progress
3. in any time in history, there tends to be a confrontation and replacement - which is usually an opposite one,
In other philosophy, it corresponds to

1. Thesis
3. Antithesis
3. Synthesis

Major works of Hegel
1. Phenomenology of spirit
2. Science of logic

Hegel belongs to the absolute Idealistic group- Reality of universe according to Hegel is that of absolute mind (spirit). Method of philosophy of Hegel is Dialectic - nonlinear but implicative- Everything can be studied in relation to others.

This relationship of part and whole in the organism is extended to all truth and reality. Every truth or fact Is dependant upon and helps in turn to determine every other truth or fact. This is called the 'ORGANIC THEORY OF TRUTH AND REALITY* since everything is internally determined by Its relation to everything else.

Any organic whole Is more than the mere sum of Hs parts. The successful work of art Is an organic whole. The meaning of a painting cannot be understood simply by analysing the nature of the canvas and different colours used, though they are essential. Each figure in the painting has an artistic relationship to the rest. it is a part of the whole and the true significance of the whole is more than mere addition of parts. However the whole Is not separate from the part and do not exist independently. The whole logically determines the character of each of its parts.

'Reality is an infinite (absolute) whole, consisting of the finite parts, each of which contributes to the whole and is determined by it."

Each moment in our conscious experience is an organic part of our life as a whole. Our  as a whole is conditioned by the human socrely. Society is inter related with the earth and earth is the organic pan of the universe which is made up of its constituent parts.Since we are an organic part of the universe, the laws of our reason are the laws of the universe.

Part to whole relationship is not the same as the sum total, this concept should have influence Dr. Samuel Hahnemann in creating (he concept of totality.Concept of organic whole: some thing more than addition and deletion take place to evolution of living beings. The concept of organic whole implies the relation of pan to whole In living and non living organisms, fn non living organism this is decided by laws of physics, but not in living substances. This living organism is more than mere sum of its parts; hence this cannot be considered as a mere union of individual pans.

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE VIEW OF THINGS: If we look at everything by itself apart from Its relationships, we are looking at it abstractly. IF we consider it to Its organic relationship, then we view it concretely. Study of a leaf under (he microscope is abstract,study of the leaf in relationship to the tree is concrete.

Abstract study: study of a particular phenomena, event or object in relation ship with the units of the universe. Mind controls the body.

Principles of negation: for anything there Is an opposite existence. This concept was further developed by clerke.

METAPHYSICS:
Explained fn 14 books. If deals with 'being* in general (being and existence). It is the science of' being general means something like. In so far as they are. Hence metaphysics studies things which exist, is the study of those attributes which hold of entities, to virtue of the fact that (hey are entities.

Further Aristotle attributes 'oneness' or 'unity' as such features. Any object remains as one. Every thing exists in one thing. The nature of oneness leads to pleurality an and to otherness like differences and contrariety.

Aristotle considers substances as concrete individual. The concept of idealism is being intended to explain the nature of the things. Idealism cannot explain the relation between things and ideas.

Relation between life principle, existence and material body completely unavailable. Regarding the essence of being, Aristotle rejected the  atomic theory o f Democritus and the transcedental concept of Plato and considered the essence of concrete individual as constituted by its form. By the essential quality of class to which it belongs.

Aristotle approved pleurality of substances. Every individual substance is a mixture of matter an d form.

1. Form is the universal aspect of the thing (object). The essential characteristics are shared by alt things of the same type. Matter confers, particularity and uniqueness. Matter and form are inseparable aspects of individual thing. The universal and particulars are fused into unity of the individual. Individual subject to changes and moves. Subject to changes.

2.Aristotte also considered the potentiality and actually of (he stage of development of substances. The potential being an earlier and the actual being the later stage. The potential is that lies latent in a substances. Matter is the principles of potentiality of form and form is the principle of reality.

3. Cause: That Which effect the change
    He classified causes Into two types
a) Material cause: it Is the stuff from which the substance in Question is made of
b) Format cause: the pattern or structure in which the substance is realized. Particular shape or pattern in which the substance is made
c) Efficient cause: The active agent which produces (he substance
d) Final cause: is the purpose for which the substance is made of

Material and formal causes are called as intrinsic causes since they enter Into the constitution of the affected. Efficient cause  and final cause are extrinsic causes _since they remain outside the effect.

Each individual substances was not just one cause but have all four causes. So also. the discovery of one type of cause does not preclude the discovery of other types of causes.

Bacons philosophy of humanity considers nature and slate of man as constituted by body and soul of man respectively. Nature and state gives two inferences

b) impressions
Indications, physiognomy. Inference of identification of character of mind by physical constitution of (he body  by physiognomy. Through the dreams state and disposition of the body can be known

Impression: investigate the effects of humours and temperament in the body and that of passion and apprehension of mind and body. This concept has been in cooperated into Homoeopathy.

Doctrine of body : Doctrine of body of man contributes to (he 'good* of man Le. ethics, medicine, cosmetics (aesthetic sense). Bacon identified three functions to medicine
1. Cure of disease
2. Preservation of health
3. Prolongation of life

Cosmetics deals with
1. Hygiene
2. Art

Doctrine of soul
Divided info two a) rational - divine soul b) Irrational
Rational soul Is inspired by God and has six functions
1. Understanding
2. Reasoning
3. Appetite
4. Will
5. Imagination
6. Memory
To this he added two other functions
a) Divination : making a predication by argument (divine)
b) Fascination: power of imagination resulting on another body

Bacon's method of science:
Bacon's epistemology rests upon a single method in induction. Very simple in principles but intricate in application. According to Bacon knowledge starts from sensible experience, rests upon natural existory which presents sense data in an ordlnate distribution, rises up from lower proposition to a more general one. tries to reach the more fundamental laws of nature and from there by a practical deduction derives new experiments or works.

Induction aims at the purpose of answer to the question of invention, induction shouldn't be a) blind (prejudiced) b) imperative

It should help to find out the truth. Induction postulates that the world is an organic unity, that a is a cosmos and not chaos, a universe and not a multi verse. The things that constitute the true world are not an aggregate.

Core of induction:
Formation of axioms - general proposition of experiencing the cause of phenomena i.e. correction of data.
Arrangement of tables which presents the understanding of all known instances to some nature in the object of investigation collected without premature speculation and followed by
Going to affirmatives through negatives

Reason for prejudices
1. Idola tribus: idol of tribes. Every tribe has its own inherent characters, this resulting in certain prejudices
2.Idole species: idol of dens, related to the peculiarities of individual due to  education, mental attitudes social circumstances
3. Idola Fori: Idol of market, due to association of words and names, often these need not represent reality
4. Idole theatre: Idol of theatre, due to result of false theories and philosophies.

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