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LOGIC
In every subject matter Aristotle continued his predecessors by giving his own theories for further developments, but In logic he was the first to conceive of a systematic treatment of correct inference and because of this he is considered to be the founder of logic.The logic he has explained in  prior analyticus
Logic is the Important instrument for acquisition of genuine knowledge
Logic is an elaboration of methods employed in search of at! knowledge and It is called as science of sciences. Logic Is concerned with thought forms and thinking process to achieve truth.

Theory of argument:
Argument is a discourse that tries to prove a point. The proposition of an argument fries to support its conclusions. And those propositions, which are addressed or which are put forward are called  premises. Aristotle recognised two types or arguments.

1. DEDUCTIVE LOGIC
2. INDUCTIVE LOGIC

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC:
A deduction is an argument in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises. Aristotle's deductive method is other wise called as SYLLOGISM - which means computation. Aristotle means syllogism as a valid argument or at least any argument with a conclusion different from any of his premises. Every syllogism consists of 3 parts

1. Major premises - usually a universal law which will be always firm and affixing
2. Minor premise - subject
3. Conclusion
All men are mortal
Ram is a man
Ram is mortal

It can be continued - the conclusion of one syllogism can be used as 8 premise for other syllogism. Series of syllogism applied until we reach up to a law. Basic principles never requires premises.
 
1. Complete: a method in which conclusion follows obviously from premises
2. Incomplete deduction: conclusion is not obvious. It requires adequate steps of reasoning between the premises and conclusions.

INDUCTIVE LOGIC:
Argues from particular to universe (general) .i.e it Infers e general claim from a number of instances.

Ram has 2 eyes
Sri has 2 eyes
Sita has 2 eyes
Humans has 2 eyes

It  is invalid by adding a right premise that single counter example is sufficient to block the inductive  inference. Therefore, a good inductive argument must also suppose that, there Is a counter example. Counter example with be any argument that form a false conclusion from the premises.

USAGE OF ARGUMENTS:
1.Demonstrative science:
Aristotle used the word 'epistem' for knowledge which means body of knowledge about some subject, organized into a system of proofs or demonstration. To know scientifically Js to know the causes-Scientific study to identify the causes reason. why it must be as It is and cannot be other wise. Aristotle supposes that deductions had epistemic power. If the premises are true, then that knowledge together with knowledge of deduction bring the conclusion. For this purpose Aristotle puts 2 conditions.

1. Premises must be true
2. Premises must stand in appropriate relationship to the conclusion

Knowledge is acquired as the
1. innate power to perceive
2. Then memory of what have been perceived and
3. Finally reaching awareness or recognition of a universal present in series of perceptions.

Many perceptions toad to memories, many memories leads to experience and many experiences eventuality leads to universal truth or the first principle. Every soul has innate ability to perceive by seeing many of the instances.

2.Defirnition and Division:
Aristotle defines definition as " an account which signifies what is to be something", As accounts of things of nature, definitions are product of scientific and philosophical enquiry. Every definition consists of two aspects.

1. Determination of under what kind it follows
2. What characteristic differentiates it from within that kind ,differentiate should be per genus.
According to Aristotle definitions should explain the nature and unique property Requirements of definition:

1. A definition should not contain the name or matter to be defined
2. It should be exactly equivalent to the class of object defined, It must be neither too narrow nor too broad.

1. Definitions must not be expressed In obscure or figurative or ambiguous language
1. It should be In affirmative case and not negative,

3.Cateoories of predicates:
They are used as strategies for argument. All predicates shall be one of the following
1. What His?
2- Quantity
3. Quality
4. Relationship
5. Location
6. State
7. Time
8. Posture or position
9. Activity
10. Passivity (what it is subject to)

4.Dialectic
The word dialectic means  argue. Which are directed  at another person, which proceeds by asking questions.

Types:
1. Sophistic philosophy: a kind of verbal contrast that aims at winning by any means
2. Rhetorical argument: combined procedures of dialectical argument with a study of type of audience. To be encountered and the premise of each type will be found persuasive-

INDUCTION: J S Mill 1806-1873
Systematic nature of reality is the basis of all inference, ie a is the interconnectedness or unity. This inference is called as induction. On that we form the universal law or construct the so called system, applying this universal law to particulars - deduction

Stages of induction
Observation of facts
Formulation of hypothesis
Deduction of consequences from the derived hypothesis - verification
Proof

Impartial collection of alt factors are needed without any prejudice. Once this factors are collected, on examination we can deduce an hypothesis related to that phenomena.

In the third state i-e deduce the consequences from the observed facts with the idea of the formulated hypothesis. During this deductive process, either the hypothesis is confirmed or nonconformity - this has to be verified. This verification is a must. if  there is confusion regarding he interrelation of factors. Then it is subjected to further test or experiment. In this further experiment some of the factors are excluded and the reliable things are accepted - verification.

This deduction and verification alone never gives the basis of formulation of law. This has to be verified in other Instances also and ft is 1o be confirmed from other experiments, that no other factors are responsible for the phenomena. This provides the proof of our hypothesis and is considered as the taw.

Induction and deduction are parallel methods of studying (not similar or opposite)

The cause off phenomena is invariable unconditional antecedent of an event, in its presence the phenomena should occur and in its absence it should not occur. If any circumstance is not so affected to the phenomena whose cause we seek. Then we should eliminate it as not being its cause. The grounds on which we eliminate are

1 - That Is not the cause of phenomena in the absence of which the phenomena occurs.
2- It is not the cause of the phenomena in the presence of which the phenomena  to occur.
3. That is not the cause, which varies when it is constant or it is constant it varies or varies in no proportionate manner with ft.
4. that Is not the cause of the phenomena which is known to be the cause of another phenomena.

The rules of elimination are the negative method of stating the conditions of casual relation. A cause and its effect must be co present or co absent and any change that occurs in the one must be reflected in the other. Method explained by Mill involve  the principle of elimination.

Method of agreement;
This method consists in comparing several positive instances of the phenomena under investigation and discovering Its cause and effect, as the case may be, by seeing in what instances they agree. If 2 or more instances of the phenomena under investigation have only one circumstance In common, the circumstance in which alone an the instances agree is the cause of the given phenomena. What ever circumstances can be excluded, without prejudistic phenomena or can be absent not withstanding it presence is not connected with It in the way of causation and the casual circumstances being thus eliminated, if only one remains that one is the cause which we are in search of. Usually we may not reach one cause, more than one factors may be the cause of one particular phenomena.

Example:
P = phenomena. A to G = causes
P1-A.B,C,D
P2-A,C,D,E
P3-A,D,E,F
P4-A.E.F.G

A is the cause of event P

2. Method of difference:
If an instance In which the phenomena under investigation occur and an instance in which it does not occur having every circumstances in common save one, that one occurring only in the former, the circumstances in which alone the 2 instances differ in that effect or the cause or indispensable part of the cause of the phenomena. Here we are examining a positive and a negative instances.

Example:
P , Q, R = Phenomena; c»d,e are factors

PQR -cde
QR" de
Then c is the cause of P

PI D A,B,C,D
P2DA,C,D.E
P3 0 A.D.E.F
PO D D,E,F
POOE.F.G

4. Concomitant variation:
Any circumstances which is unaffected by the variation of e phenomena cannot be connected by way of causation. Mill stated *what ever phenomena varies in any manner, whenever another phenomena varies in same particular manner is either a cause or an effect of that phenomena is connected with it through some fact of causation. If a variation in a case is followed by a corresponding variation in phenomena or effect, then (he two are casualty connected.

Example:
PI D A, B. C, D
P'2 D A', B, C, D
P-3 D A". B. C. D

5. Method of residue:
PQRDcde
QDd
RDe
therefore, P D c

This method can be employed only at a late stage of casual investigation, ff several parts of complex phenomena have been explained in terms of their antecedent circumstances, then the remaining part or parts of the phenomena can be determined to be the effect of he antecedent factors which are yet left over.

Subduct from any phenomena such part as is known by previous induction to be the effect of certain antecedent and then the residue of the phenomena is the effect of the remaining antecedents

DOCTRINE OF FORCE
Concept of GOTTFRiED WILHELM LEIBNIZ:
(Born in Leipzic in 1646 and died on 14" November, 1716.]

Born In Germany, a mathematician and a philosopher. The third important person in rationalistic philosophy.

1. Rene Descartes: Dualism - matter and mind. Matter In the form of extension and mind is the thought. Interconnection between two. Brain as the centre of interconnection.
2. Spinosa: Never agreed with dualism concept. Only single existence - monistic -nature of God.
3. Leibniz - Existence is not m the form of thought and extension; but by force. Idea exist due to force which is inherent in it is catted MONADS - ft is the centre of force - ft is inherent in every matter, every organism. Each atom has its own monads. The universe has a number of monads - macrocosom.

QUALITIES OF MONADS:
1. Every monad is able to perceive
2. It has no windows - nothing can be added or removed. It is predetermined
3. There is a unity and harmony in functioning of different monads as different monads work together
4. Every individual monads is unique - it has its own quality. This is able to transform. The transformation of quality within the monad is called 'APPETITE'.

Low quality monad - Bare monad. Mass of bare monads ad aggregates of bare monads. In living organism QUeen monad .i.e higher quality monad. The quality of monad of tower animal is different from that of higher animal. Lower monad - perception will be limited called petite perception. In higher animals a perception - reflexive knowledge of inner stage .i.e self-consciousness.

HENRI BERGSON (1857 - 1941)
He was a French philosopher. Anti rationalistic philosopher. Promoted the idea of intuitionalism

Materialistic phenomena - include space (distribution of simultaneously existing object) and time (expression of the sequence of existence of phenomena which replace one another

According to Bergson:- Philosophy is intellect and intellectual analysis - etudes the concept of conventional method of study  of reality because every phenomena is time oriented and analysis is space oriented. Because of this Bergson was against rationalism or materialism.Berflson questions the concept of scientific and logical explanation giving relevance to space. Bergson gives first importance to time secondary to space. Time is (he very basic
principle which governs or the reality or the being (existence) Bergson applied the term *- - DURATION - instead of time. "duration" is continuing, dynamic and non static which grows in every minute and during this progress something is given out  added and is called 'ELAM VITAL'. The dynamic property of DURATION cannot be  possessed by special configuration, so analytical study of metaphysical explanation cannot rise (he essence of things, .ie the vita* aspect is tost here. This essence or 'vital1is not m the past of thing, but is the totality. Space is governed by DURATION. Bus.process of'd uration* every phenomena progress or evoke to certain end with certain aim and is  called creative evaluator Example: formation of snow or salt crystal.

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