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 CONCEPT OF MIND
Mesmer's concept of Human Mind

Frauz Mesmer (1734- 1B30) was an Austrian physician who developed the doctrine  of Animal magnetism, later called Mesmerism. He lived in an era of widespread superstitions and relative ignorance even among the upper classes, and complete ignorance among poor classes. People believed in black magic, influence of planets and advocated the intensive use of leeches and bleeding as universal remedies. Mesmer appears to be a man of good education and culture, with of course erroneous convictions and mystical beliefs. He first studied Divinity and took his Ph.D. He then studied Law and got a Doctorate. And a third Doctorate in Medicine.

Mesmer's concept of animal magnetism is contained in his doctorate thesis in Medicine. (His conclusion was that tl^ere is a universal fluid permeating in all beings; it is in a perpetual state of influx and reflex. This serves as a medium through which all co-existing objects continuously interact. It is through this fluid that the planets influence human beings.

One day Mesmer got an opportunity to witness a remarkable cure effected through the application of a magnet. He was also impressed by the sight of cures effected by a healer, solely through the touch of his hands. He arrived at the notion that the universal fluid manifests itself in living organisms, particularly in man, in a way analogous to the manner in which physical magnetism manifests itself in natural magnets according to this analogy, there are like and unlike magnetic poles, which can be transmitted, induced, changed, destroyed or reimposed. Health depends upon proper distribution and balance of this vital fluid. Mesmer attributed to physical magnets powerful animal magnetism. He also believed that some human beings are like physical magnets in that they are powerful sources of animal magnetism, and can influence objects and other human beings.

Since illness is the result of an inadequate distribution or lack of animal magnetism, a cure can be effected by altering the inadequate distribution through they use of powerful sources of animal magnetism.

The ideas of Mesmer were misinterpreted by his fater students. It came to be known as Mesmerism. There is no explanation as to how this departure from the original teaching happened. One development was the discovery of artificial somnambulism, a spectacular nervous condition that was supposedly brought about by the use of animal magnetism. It produced in many individuals all kinds of unusual and paranormal faculties. Animal magnetism became associated with various physical and Para physical forces. For example, it was used to explain table tilting and turning during spiritualistic exercises. In the hands of mesmerists, animal magnetism remained a biological entity, which could account for anything unusual. To Mesmer, animal magnetism was a concept, which explained illness and it was a rational way of cure. For the mesmer'sts, animal magnetism became an occult agent used primarily to bring about somnambulistic state and other extra medical effects. Mesmer himself saw this unfortunate development during his own lifetime, but he could not do anything to stop it.

Mesmer's theory of animal magnetism is not a scientifically valid concept. Actually Mesmer saw the cure of illness by some unknown principle or agent, and he thought that it was animal magnetism, in the light of his knowledge at that time. The main surviving influence of Mesmer is the late recognition of hypnosis as a psychotherapeutic agent.

Hypnotism

Mesmer discovered that susceptible subjects whom he magnetized responded to his suggestions and were unresponsive to the surroundings. The subjects in the state of artificial somnambulism could see and read the inner state of bodily organs. This fact was recognized by Jarnes Braid in 1841. and called it Hypnotism. Thus hypnotism was the term originally used by Braid to denote what was otherwise called nervous sleep. Hypnotism proper began as a consequence of his attempts to elucidate the true nature of mesmeric phenomena.

Braid's chief scientific contribution was the isolation from mesmeric phenomena of that component which he called hypnotism After 40 years; Charcot introduced the next important development in hypnotism. He asserted that hypnosis is not a single entity, but a group of three distinct nervous states, namely Catalepsy, Lethargy and Somnambulism. Each was capable of being introduced separately by specific physical means. Another investigation maintained that hypnosis and all its attendant phenomena were not pathological manifestations, but purely results of suggestions.

In hypnotism, the individual is asked by another person, the hypnotist, to gaze intensely at a small bright object held in front of the person, while the hypnotist tells him that he is becoming relaxed and drowsy, that his eyes are getting heavy and dosing, that he is falling asleep. Finally the subject falls asleep. But it is quite distinct from the natural sleep that the subject seems to be selectively m sensory contact with the hypnotist. He carries out the requests and commands of the hypnotist. Sometimes the subject acquires new extrasensory powers. Suggestions and suggestibility are the two elements of hypnotic task. Suggestion is the process by which the subject uncritically accepts and follows the commands of the hypnotist. Hypnotism works only if suggestions are positive. Subject must be suggestible to suggestions. Children are more suggestible than adults, women more than men. Neurotics are more suggestible than normal individuals. When one is sick, the influence of suggestion is quick. A suggestion acts as if there is faith in the individual who gives it.

There are some reports that show hypnotic suggestions have been effective in some cases. Suggestions can decrease hallucinations and delusions experienced by neurotic patients. Suggestions are powerful in improving sensory, motor and intellectual faculties.
Sometimes individuals can be asked to read the experiences of the past events vividly, especially of childhood. Smoking and alcoholism have been stopped by hypnotic suggestions.

Hypnotism is not possible if patients are not co-operating, or unwilling to be hypnotized. There is also evidence to show that person will not act against his will and conscience.

Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939)

Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalytic school of psychology. He began his career as a medical student in Vienna. After taking his M.D. he started practicing medicine with another physician Dr. Joseph_Bruer. Freud became interested in neurotic disorders and with Breur, he wrote a book on ' Studies on Hysteria'. He was dissatisfied with the then existing therapeutics of neurotic patients. First he started with hypnotic suggestions, but later gave it up and developed the technique of psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis may be viewed as a theory of mind. a form of treatment, and a movement. After discarding hypnosis, he developed a method called talking method, in which the patient was encouraged to speak out to the physician in a free manner. In this conversion, Freud found the forgotten memories & experiences were associated with their problems. This is the method of free association. Here the patient is asked to relax both physically and mentally, and waited for the patient to speak out spontaneously. The patient was free to tell anything and everything that came to his mind.

The main beliefs of Freud are motivation on human behavior, emphasis on sexuality. psychic determinism, and influence of unconscious, repression, mental conflict, anxiety and defense as causes of neurosis. Freud believed that all human behavior is mentally determined, and unconsciously motivated. To him, mind is mainly unconscious, which originated from repression. Every human being is born with a number of desires, mainly instinctual desires. A good many of them are not satisfied due to many reasons. Sometimes the mind experiences two powerful contradictory desires, the satisfaction of one is against the satisfaction of the other. In other words, the mind is pulled in two opposite directions by two strong opposing forces. This experience is called mental conflicts

Freud says that in our attempt to forcefully throw out the unwelcome desire from the mind, it goes from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind. This is how the unconscious part of the mind develops. The repressed desire is never inactive in the unconscious mind. It is always trying to come up to the conscious mind to get satisfied. But the conscious -mind always tries to keep it down. Thus there is a perceptual war between the conscious and unconscious mind- The theory of repression is the main pillar on which the whole edifice of psychoanalysis rests.

To Freud, mind consists of three parts, Id. Ego and Superego

Id consists of the instinctual desires, seeking immediate satisfaction. It is completely selfish .It is the pleasure principle. It is irrational and infantile.

Ego is that part of mind which is always in contact with the external world. Ego is guided by the reality principle. It tries to control the pleasure principle

Superego is that part of mind which consists of moral ideas and standards of the individual. When a child grows up. he imbibes the moral ideas of his parents, brothers and sisters. All these ideas of right and wrong, good and evil constitute the Superego. It is the moral guide, and its  is that of a sensor. Very often there is conflict between Id and Superego.

Freud has vividly explained infantile sexuality. His fundamental assumption is that all neurosis is due to sexual maladjustments, probably at the childhood age. The neurotic patients have repressed their sexual desires, and in order to understand their problems, 'one has to go back to the original cause of repression, which may be found only  in early childhood.

The most surprising statement of Freud is that the sexual life of an individual begins at early childhood, not at puberty. Freud rejects the idea of innocent childhood, as the child has a strong sexual desire and very malicious tendencies.

Freud gives an elaborate explanation of the development of Libido or the sex energy. In the first stage, one derives pleasure from one's own body (Oral stage & Anal stage), in the second stage, the homosexual stage, there is strong attachment to the members of the same sex. The third stage is the heterosexual or normal stage, where one is associated with the opposite sex. Freud also states that in the first two years, children are sexually attached to the parent of opposite sex. Oedipus complex refers to boys and Electra complex to girls

To Freud, dream is a disguised satisfaction of a repressed desire, dream. Interpretation is a key to the understanding of the unconscious. Dream has a manifest content and a latent content. Manifest content is what actually appears in the dream. It stands for some hidden ideas and images in the unconscious, which is the latent content, During sleep, Superego is not very alert, so alt unsatisfied desires come up to the conscious mind and get satisfaction in a disguised manner. This is done by symbolization, dramatization, condensation and displacement. To Freud, symbols are sexually significant. Interpretation of dreams means understanding the original meaning of disguised symbols and other mechanisms.

 
CONTEMPORARY SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Alfred Adler 
Alfred Adler was born in Vienna. Austria on February 7. j^n During the early  decades of the century, he originated the ideas, which, to a large extent, have been incorporated in the mainstream of present-day theory and practice of psychology and psychopathology.

In 1898. at age 28. Adler wrote his first book, which deals with the health conditions off Jailors. In it he sets forth what later was to become one of the main tenets of his school of -thought; the necessity of looking at man as a whole, as a functioning entity, reacting to his environment as well as to his physical endowment, rather than as a summation of instincts, drives and other psychological manifestations.

In 1902, when Adler was one of the few who reacted favorably to his book on dream interpretations, Freud sent him a hand-written postcard suggesting him join the circle which met weekly in Freud's home to discuss newer aspects of psychopathology. At that time Adler had already started collecting material on patients with physical handicaps, studying both their organic and psychological reactions to them. Only when Freud had assured him that in his circle a variety of views, including Adler's, would be discussed did Adler accept the invitation.

Five years later, in 1907. Adler published his book on Organ inferiority and its Compensation. From then on, the difference between Freud's and Adler's views became steadily more marked. Adler had never accepted Freud's original theories that mental difficulties were caused exclusively by a sexual trauma, and he opposed the generalizations when dreams were interpreted, in each instance, as sexual wish fulfillment. After prolonged discussions, during which each of the two men tried to win the other over to his point of view- attempts doomed to failure from the start- Adler left Freud's circle in 1911 with a group of eight colleagues and formed his own school.

In 1912 Adler published his book. The Neurotic Constitution, in which he further developed his main concepts. He called his psychological system "Individual Psychology." a term which is sometimes misunderstood. It refers to the indivisibility of the personality in its psychological structure.

Carl Justav Jung
He is the founder of the Analytic school of psychology. He was born in 1875. He studied Biology, Philosophy, Archeology and mysticism. The dissertation for his medical degree was parapsychology. He took his MD in 1900, He was attached to Freud in 1907, but he disagreed with Freudian concept of sexuality. According to him, libido is the sexual instinct. It should not be generalized as the central core personality development.

His concepts:

1. Human behavior is controlled by past & future
2. Human beings are religious animals wherein the unconscious mind goes back to the very beginning of human race. Man is motivated more by religious and moral values than by primitive sexuality.
3. Structure of personality; The total personality of psyche consist of a number of interacting systems namely ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious.

Ego- lt is the conscious mind.. including all elements of mind which an individual is aware of , like thought, perception, learning and memories. It is^the centre of personality responsible for one's feelings.

Personal unconscious: It includes materials outside one's conscious mind, but forgotten repressed or pushed out of conscious mind. This is highly individual based upon one's own past experience.

Collective unconscious: It is the part of human heritage common to all people, It is the storehouse of latent trails inherited from our ancestral part. It is nothing personal but universal. It is composed of a number of universal thought forms called archetypes. An archetype is the original mode or pattern from  which something develops. They are 3 types
 
Persona: It is the mask worn by the person according.to the demands of the social situations. It produces definite impressions up on others.

Anima & Animus: These are the feminine and masculine principles respectively. Man essentially a bisexual animal. E.g. Every human being secretes both male and female hormones.

Anima- It is the undeveloped feminine part of man's personality. Animus is the undeveloped masculine part of woman's personality. Anima is more operative in emotional situations, and animus in practical situations. Jung considers man as rational and woman as emotional.

Dynamics of Personality: It is the energy by which the personality develops. There are two alternatives for it, namely Libido and Psychic energy.

Stages of development
Man is constantly progressive, always attempting from the unstable to more stable to complete self-actualization.
Early phase is by the Libido action, necessary for the survival of childhood.
Sexual values begin to appear during adolescence. In one's youth, the, basic life instinct is more energetic and impulsive.
During 30 to 40 years, youthful instincts are replaced by cultural values.
In middle age, man become more  introvert and introspective, and less impulsive. Man attains wisdom gradually, and transferred into a spiritual man.

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